Board Game and Total Cycle Time

X-Opoly Inc. X-Opoly, Inc. , was founded by two first-year college students to produce a knockoff real estate board game similar to Monopoly. Initially, the company’s purpose was to produce a board game based on popular local landmarks in their small college town, as a way to help pay for their college expenses. However, due to big success and since they enjoyed running their own business, the founders decided to pursue the business full-time after graduation.X-Opoly has growth over the last couple of years attributed to its designing and producing custom real estate trading games for universities, municipalities, chambers of commerce, and lately even some businesses. The company fills orders from a couple of hundred to several thousand and projects that its sales will grow 25 percent annually for the next five years. X-Opoly’s Process X-Opoly’s clients request either a new game board that has not been produced or repeat orders for a game that was previously prod uced.Once the request for a new game is received from a client, a meeting is arranged with a graphic designer from X-Opoly’s art department and the actual game board is designed. The approved designs are transferred electronically to the printing department where they are loaded onto personal computers and printed on special decals. The printing department is also responsible for printing the property cards, game cards, and money. The money is then moved to the cutting department, where it is cut into individual bills. Similarly, property cards and game cards are produced with the exception of using material resembling poster board.In addition to cutting the money, game cards, and property cards, the cutting department also cuts the cardboard that serves as the substrate for the actual game board. After being cut, game boards, money, and cards are stored in totes in a work-in-process area and delivered to the appropriate station on the assembly line as needed. X-Opoly Operati ons Efficiency Measuring X-Opoly’s performance is the key to improving its service to customers. The company currently operates 19 stations with a total cycle time of 6 min 45 sec per job.In my opinion, X-Opoly should consider combining assemblies within stations to reduce the number of stations. This process would allow some components to be partially assembled for the next station. This reduces the number of jobs involved in making multi-level products and keeps inventory to a minimum. Adopting a lean approach starts with a simple question: â€Å"What's essential? † Whether X-Opoly is simply trying to survive or conducting an assessment of their productivity, it is imperative to determine that every activity they engage in is essential in the value chain to providing a competitive product.This involves analyzing each phase of the product lifecycle from innovation, to design and development, to testing and, eventually, manufacturing and removing the waste from those p rocesses. For example, the company’s production line maximum capacity/day is would increase by reducing the waste and redundancy in design and development which would increase the company’s efficiency. To further improve X-Opoly’s efficiency, I would recommend developing a more formal manufacturing system (Flow Manufacturing). Flow manufacturing is a time-based process that pulls material through a production system without any interruption. (SAE. rg) This can be achieved by striking the proper balance between new technology and the proper amount of skilled labour. Flow manufacturing would reduce total cycle time, lessen inventory and increase X-Opoly’s productivity. The increase productivity would assist the company in meeting and possibly exceeding future demands. Finally, I believe X-Opoly would benefit from eliminating is non value added time to improve its efficiency. References Jacobs, F. , and Chase, R. , (2011). Operations and Supply Chain Managem ent (13th ed. ). McGraw-Hill, New York, NY SAE. org (2011). Thinking of Lean Manufacturing Systems. Retrieved October 2011

Middle Years Development Essay

Introduction Early adolescence encompasses a diverse range of development, emotions, growth and learning. This can be categorised into the following: Sociocultural, physiological, neurological and psychological. It is the responsibility of middle years educators to be familiar with the stages of development and in particular demonstrate understanding of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (Pendergast and Bahr, 2010). It should be the pedagogy of all middle years teachers to establish relationships with students and their families offer students an engaging education and model sensitivity and acceptance of the students especially during adolescent development. This essay will touch on theoretical knowledge and understanding, practical research and identifiable characteristics of middle years students. Middle years educators should consider the implications and how pedagogical practice should be influenced to ensure a holistic educational experience for early adolescent students. SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVES â€Å"As children move into early adolescence, they begin to appreciate that people can have mixed feelings about events and other individuals. They realise that people may simultaneously have multiple, and possibly conflicting, intentions† (Pendergast 2010, p. 468). As students approach the middles years of school, ages 9 to 14, it becomes noticeable that students are developing their personalities and opinions. Whilst this is strengthens some friendships it also may dissolve others. The students in the middle years classroom quickly identify peers and develop biases and prejudices. Sadly these prejudices can lead to serious consequences and the development of unhealthy social-cognitive prejudice, which can lead to the exclusion, and discrimination of some students (Pendergast and Bahr, 2010). Carrington argues that adolescents are exposed to adult practices and popular culture as well as having a decreased amount of parental or adult supervision. One can deduce from this that adolescents are making judgments that are not properly formed and this can have an impact on relationships both in and out of school (Carrington, 2010). Kroger (2007), Moll and Arnot-Hopffer (2005) state that adolescents are  establishing more mature identities and view points. it is the teacher’s role to unbiased political view of the world to assist students in accepting and engaging in many opinions and beliefs. Erickson argues that free will can lead to a paradox, namely, that an adolescent would rather act shamelessly in the eyes of his elders, out of free choice, than be forced into activities which would be shameful in his own eyes or in those of his peers (1968, p 147). This theory can be applied to today’s middle school due to very influential factors in sociocultural perspectives such as pop-culture and the immediate environment (Carrington, 2011). Popular culture sets a trend in which it is made popular by a select few in the middle years cohort. This leads to adolescents are striving for individuality within the confines of their environment and social acceptance. Peer interaction and collaborative learning can assist in forming relationships, connect experiences and develop higher order thinking (Willis, 2007). When engaging in these kinds of learning environments opinions can be expressed, supported and argued. Educators must ensure that diversity and tolerance is paramount in the classroom supports this. (Moll and Arnot-Hopffer, 2005). PHYSIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES â€Å"I think what is happening to me is so wonderful, and not only what can be seen on my body, but all that is taking place inside. I never discuss myself or any of these things with anybody; that is why I have to talk to myself about them. † – Anne Frank (1939, p. 146) Anne Frank viewed adolescence, particularly her menarche, as a private and enriching time in her young life that must be kept to herself. This is a viewpoint of some middle years students however sadly, unlike Anne, many adolescents discover the maturational sequences of puberty a difficult and  stressful time. (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2010). Students are experiencing obvious physical changes however these will occur almost certainly at different rates. However brain development, hormones and puberty attribute to physical growth. McDevitt and Ormrod state that these changes are occurring in the body from 9-14 years therefore it is important for adolescent educators to be prepared and sensitive to the changes in their students. Pendergast (2010) argues middle years students feel a sense of isolation and disengagement, which can be attributed to hormonal changes. Puberty does not only influence physical changes but links to social groups, neurological and psychological perspectives. Middle years physiological perspectives also include nutrition, exercise and healthy wellbeing. Encouragement needs to be fostered in healthy eating, but introducing fruit and vegetable breaks and physical movement but encouraging Health and Physical Education or simply movement through drama and dance. Watson and Bandura argue that environmental influences impact on grooming and shaping beliefs (Pendergast and Bahr, 2010). Looking that these theorists further it can be determined that the middle years student is developing habits which are reliant on environment or habitus. Therefore middle years educators are able to influence and model healthy interactions with students, nutrition, health and peer groups. Enthusiasm and care for students and their wellbeing will ensure students are less likely to become withdrawn from classes and their peers, and to embrace the changes and view them as a natural progression of their growth. NEUROLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES As technological advances put more and more time between early school life and the young person’s final access to specialize work the stage of adolescence becomes even more marked and conscious period and, as it has always been in some cultures in some periods, almost a way of life between childhood and adulthood (Erickson 1968, p 147). During adolescence the brain is subject to huge neurological changes. The prefrontal cortex is the final stage of neural development and this period of maturation gives way to neurobiological hypothesis such as adolescents engaging in risky and impulsive behaviour (Casey, Jones and Somerville, 2011). The transition from childhood to adulthood requires the prefrontal cortex of the brain to mature, which improves cognitive ability, settles hormones and moderates the brain chemistry levels. One of the most influential chemicals in the brain is serotonin. High serotonin levels can give way to risky behaviour, sexual promiscuity and defiance. Educators in the middle years need to consider the imbalance of brain chemicals and hormones such as serotonin can lead to disengagement in learning. Whilst this neurological stage is happening it is important to ensure students safety is paramount and discourage students from making suboptimal decisions which lead to poor long-term outcomes (Casey, Jones and Somerville, 2011). Giedd (2002) states â€Å"it’s sort of unfair to expect teens to have adult levels of organizational skills or decision-making before their brains are finished being built. † According to Giedd’s research the brain whilst being 95% of its total size by adolescence the synapse and cortical connections still need to be established and connected. It is also theorized that adolescent brains are only developed properly given higher order associations, real world connections and sensorimotor practice (Casey, Jones and Somerville, 2011). Many factors influence the development of the adolescent brain including peer relations, real world connections, experience and psychological perspectives and so too is the importance of the middle years educator in the life of an adolescent. . PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Psychological maturation is measured by an adolescent’s ability to maintain or achieve a state of homeostasis. – Jodi A Quas (2011, p.263) It has been recognized that adolescents have many stress markers. These markers are prevalent and can be identified in many ways. Cognitive growth and processes change with such speed that adolescents are vulnerable to normally inconsequential events, which induce diverse psychological reactions. These events can be both positive and negative such as arousal, laughter, sadness, fright or flight. These can produce endorphin’s that allow psychological affects to appear. Middle school students are continually faces with challenges that lead to these psychological shifts in the brain. These can be academic achievement and pressure, peer pressure and collaborative learning, physical exercise and general cultural factors. It is the role of educators to realise the differences in middle years students’ psychological position and ensure nurturing, stimulating and engaging practices are offered to the students at all times (Quas, 2011). Levine & Levine’s (2007) theory of cognitive backpacks also a way of dealing and recognising psychological stressors as well as preparing them for adult life. Using the interpretation model teachers can identify the way in which students react and relate to issues and beliefs. In assessing a student’s deeper understanding and critical thinking of learning an educator can deduce the reason for a middle years student’s beliefs and how their thoughts were established. The instrumentation stage allows students to take ownership of their education and metacognition. This encourages students to have their own voice and not be too easily influenced. Interaction is a stage that is vital to student’s success in future life. The correct environment can advance interaction of peers, encourage interpersonal skills and allows students to exercise their beliefs within a peer setting. This stage then supports the final stage which is inner direction. Confidence of student’s own beliefs, understanding and opinions as well as acceptance of other’s beliefs and opinions enriches the student’s ability to be passionate and motivated to improve themselves (Snowman, 2009). IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS â€Å"We have already described the importance of the teacher in providing an environment in which children can feel challenged and stimulated intellectually, as well as feeling safe to explore and express themselves. † – McInerney & McInerney (2006, p. 491). Middle school education is a multi-faceted exciting teaching opportunity. However, it is important to realise many implications for teachers are needed to be implemented to achieve a balanced inclusive classroom. Carrington (2002) states Queensland must adopt a strong vision for teaching of middle school students. This often requires the consideration of physiological, sociocultural, psychological and neurological perspectives to be accommodated. One implication that resonates through all the perspectives is peer learning. Peer learning has been a proven effective tool when used correctly. Allowing students to have a voice fulfills sociocultural and psychological needs. The student’s voice can be valuable teaching tool as well as a learning tool. Collaborative learning with peers engages students to share and appreciate different perspectives and observations. It is also important to consider that these collaborative learning groups are highly successful in common or same paced learning such as studies of society and environment and science. It is important to ensure each group has a similar cross-section of students to allow for a holistic and diverse interaction. However, to ensure that students are also able to assume the same level in mathematics and literacy, where lessons are catered for particular ability levels rather than groups, it is important to group according to ability level (Snowman, 2009) Another implication in teaching middles years students is ensuring students are able to privately connect with a teacher or even another member of staff should any physiological and psychological changes occur in the classroom. Being prepared and aware that students may begin menarche or sings of spermarche during a class and offering students products and support needed for such an event. Erikson (1968) argues that adolescence is an egocentric stage in which the world around the adolescent is centered on them (Erikson, 1968). This can exacerbate issues such as friendships, bullying or changes within a family unit. A teacher or other staff member such as a guidance councilor or chaplain should be prepared to offer advice and support. It is integral that departmental procedure is adhered to and teachers should always ensure their relationship with their students is professional at all times. A further implication for teachers is to ensure their pedagogical process allows students to be engaged, challenged and given the opportunity to gain real world experience to make connections to their learning and the use of ICT. Education Queensland as well as professional development in this area provide productive pedagogy models. One such model ensures intellectual quality, supportive classroom environment, recognition of difference and connectedness (Education Queensland, 2007). Carrington’s constructivist view of signature practices also supports the framework for establishing meaningful pedagogy for middle years students. Particular elements to assess are incorporation of technology, interdisciplinary teacher teaming, creative use of classroom space and timetabling, strong, valuable teacher-student relationships, integrated curriculum with authentic links to real world, engagement in school, local and wider community and collaborative teaching and learning (Carrington, 2011). The implications of middle years students on teachers are endless, it is vital to recognise and appreciate that students within the years 4 to 9 can offer life long learning opportunities and students also give educators the change to change lives. CONCLUSION â€Å"The middle years of schooling are the site of vibrant educational reform. This is exciting on a number of fronts: the development and implementation of innovative curriculum; the creation of robust teacher professional communities; and, a renewed focus on the relevance of educational research for classroom practice. † – Carrington (2011, p. 1) Educators of middle years students are have a vital role to play in not only in the role of a middle years teacher, but also as an advocate, protector, ambassador and keen participant in the betterment of middle schools education. Ensuring that the middle school has a plan that encompasses the many perspectives of student’s needs and development but also in the environment that surrounds these students. Students are adolescents for such a short time and whilst it is brief it should not be regarded as insignificant. The psychological, neurological and physiological perspectives of an adolescent need constant nurturing and as a teacher this is a in a constant state of change. Whilst the sociocultural perspective it discreet it is the nurturing of all perspectives that results in preparing students for adult life and academic success (Carrington, 2011). Preparing youth for the future extends beyond classroom practice, it requires dedication of further study and being aware of change and adaptable that will see students through the middle years of schooling. REFERENCES Barry, K. and King, L. (2006). Beginning teaching and beyond. Victoria, Australia: Cengage Learning Australia. Casey, B. J. , Jones, R. M. and Somerville, L. H. (2011). Braking and accelerating of the adoloscent brain. Journal of research on adolescence, 21 (1), Pages 21-33. Retrieved from Weill Cornell Medical College http://www. med. cornell. edu/ Carrington, V. (2011). Key themes and the future: Reflections on the middle years of schooling. The University of Queensland. Retrieved from World Education Reform Australia http://www. wef. org. au Carrington, V. (2002). The middle years of schooling in Queensland: A way forward. The University of Queensland. Retrieved from University of South Australia http://www. unisa. edu. au Education Queensland. (2007). 20 productive pedagogical models. Retrieved from http://education. qld. gov. au/corporate/newbasics/html/pat. html Erickson, E. (1968). Identity youth and crisis. New York, United States of America: W. W. Norton and Company Ltd. Giedd, J. (2002). Inside the teenage brain. Frontline. Retrieved from PBS http://www. pbs. org Killen, R. (2009). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice. Victoria, Australia: Cengage Learning Australia. Klima, T. and Repetti, R. (2008). Children’s peer relations and their psychological adjustment: Differences between close friendships and the larger peer group. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. Retrieved from Wayne State University Press http://wsupress. wayne. edu/ McDevitt, T. M. and Ormrod, J. E. (2010). Child development and education. Australia: Pearson Education Australia Pty Limited. McInerney, D. M. and McInerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology: Constructing learning. New South Wales, Australia: Pearson Education Australia. Moll, L. C. and Arnot-Hopffer, E. (2011). Sociocultural competence in teacher education. Journal of teacher education. Retrieved from Sage Publishing http://jte. sagepub. com. Pendergast, D. and Bahr, N. (2010). Teaching middle years. New South Wales, Australia : Allen & Unwin. Quas, J. A. (2011). Measuring physiological stress responses in children: lessons from a novice. Journal of cogition and development, 12 (3), Pages 262-274. Retrieved from EDBSCO host http://gateway. library. qut. edu. au. ezp Sanders, M. R. (2004). Every parent – a positive approach to children’s behaviour. Victoria, Australia : Penguin Group Australia. Snowman, J. , Dobozy, E. , Hammond, W. , McNally, J. , Pearce, R. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia. Willis, J. (2007). Cooperative learning is a brain turn-on. Engaging instruction to captivate students. Retrieved from Middle School Journal http://middleschooljournal. com Winston, R. (2010). What goes on in my head? London, England: Dorling Kindersley Limited.

Champion Of The World English Literature Essay

Champion Of The World English Literature Essay Throughout the years, sports have become a major part of society. It has been known to bring out the best and worst of people. People usually go after a team from their home town or teams with the same ethnic background. It has often been learned that, from this, language barriers begin to cross each other, and prejudices develop. Maya Angelou’s â€Å"Champion of the World† is much more than a chapter in a book. It represents much more than a boxing victory. During the 1930’s, people of ethnic groups, especially Blacks, were not worth much. When Angelou stated, â€Å"Champion of the world. A Black boy. Some Black mother’s son.† (Paragraph 27), this defined struggle. This battle against the White Contender was not your ordinary victory. The victory would exemplify the Blacks, not only defeating a White man and it being okay, but also would portray an aspect of Blacks defeating the system. For once in their lives, it gave African Americans a sense of empowerment. This was their first step of defense, where no repercussions would be taken in exchange for victory. â€Å"If Joe lost we were back in slavery and beyond help. † â€Å"My race groaned. It was our people falling†. (Paragraphs 16 and 17).[Reference?] These two quotes represent struggle and years of pain. They knew what it was like to experience violence first hand. It was not a myth nor story they heard about, they felt the pain on a daily basis. Not only would this defeat be a lost for Louis, but it would represent defeat to the entire Black culture. If this were to happen, Maya Angelou said it herself, Blacks were helpless. To them, it was back to torture, inferiority, pain, and suffering. To the Whites it would be accomplishment, defeat, superiority, and power. As stated before, this defeat was a mere symbol of Blacks regaining strength after all they had been through over the years; however, this did not defeat the purpose that racism still existed. In the last paragraph of this chapter in the book, it talked about the precautions Blacks would have to take after the victory of Joe Louis. Even though Louis’ defeat against the White Contender gave him the title as â€Å"Heavy Weight Champion of the World†, it also was now a risk for Blacks. Mentioned earlier, at the time, racism still existed. Racism is prejudice plus power: meaning, because the Whites had prejudice against any other ethnic group, and they possessed a power that came from the simple privilege of being White. If at any time Whites felt disrespected, they had the â€Å"right† to reprimand them at any cost. This is only portion of the violence occurring in and around 1930. In the opening paragraph of this paper, it gives the introductory opinion. Over the years, sports have become the core to many people in society. It can either better a person and/or society or worsen them. In other words, a person can look at competitiveness at a positive or neg ative approach. As far as positive competitiveness is concerned, it can be looked upon to better a person. It can also be detrimental, literally speaking. Too many times in society today, people take sports to the extreme. There has been many instances where people have even lost their lives as a result of a bet on the victory of a game, or even the preference one has over the other. Sports have an immense influence over culture and society then and now. For example, the victory of Joe Louis was more than a victory. It was symbolic to the African American culture and society. It gave them pride, and for many who have never experienced anything like this, it was a first. This is only one example of the influence sports have on culture.

Level of service of safety (critical review) Essay

Level of service of safety (critical review) - Essay Example This is because, there are many accidents that occur in different roads, but he rural or two lane roads remain unattended and not maintained to the standard of safety that is required for a standard road. In the analysis of the highways as the report portrays, rural; roads or two lane roads are more prone to increased road accidents and fatalities at both low and high range AADT due to their design. Therefore, the report is authentic enough and treats the problem in detail, and might be put into practice by road design professionals. Kononov and Allery (60) argues that a road safety analysis has to include the analysis of the severity of accidents and their numbers, while a second approach has to be based on the injury and the fatal accidents only. The safety of a road network has to largely indicate the number of accidents per year or and the number of fatalities and injury that result from such accidents or the AADT. It is through these factors that are ad might be classified to be either safe or unsafe in regard to road transportation. These are the important factors hat are considered when marking out black spots or areas with a higher number of road accidents and fatalities per year. Though as Kononov and Alley (60) elaborate most super highways are designed within standards, there exists dispersion where accidents are more prone and more fatal compared to other sections. These sections or black spots as they are often referred are unidentified though such data and engineers are able to verify and redesign such sections of roads to enhance the level of safety and impact a better safety performance function. A report financed by the European Union on road safety management (14) establishes the steps that have to be included in road network safety management. Theses steps are the data collection on traffic, roads and accident

Information & operation management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Information & operation management - Essay Example The functions of the operations are at the center of Jaguar Land Rover (JLR), and they interact with other duties although they may involve different activities. The functions must work together to realize the objectives of the company. Operation management is not done in isolation, but every decision is entwined with other functions to follow the strategic direction that has been developed by the management (Stevenson & Sum 2009). The Operations function of JLR ensures that raw materials are available to the production process so as to make products that consumers will require. The ‘operations’ also share ideas across the company on how to improve processes and realize savings on the cost. The Department of operations ensures that there is increased efficiency and effective management of safety and environmental matters (Stevenson & Sum 2009). JLR’s business operations managers help different departments in the company to coordinate and meet the objectives of the business. The roles of business operations managers of the company are to negotiate contracts, address budget issues and guide work teams among others. Production and Operations Management is involved in the conversion of inputs into outputs that will meet the needs of clients. The primary role of Production and Operations Management of JLR is to guarantee that the company manufactures the required products, according to the objectives of the company. POM incorporates different tasks that are interdependent. These functions include product, plant, processes, programs, and people (Stevenson & Sum 2009). Some of the problems addressed by Production and Operations Management of the company include scheduling production, management of distribution systems, selecting production facilities location and ensuring that goods and services are of high quality. Jaguar Land Rover’s Supply Chain Management deals with

Family-based Care or Nursing Home Care in the Face of Dementia Essay

Family-based Care or Nursing Home Care in the Face of Dementia - Essay Example Dementia is a collective term used to refer to a range of diseases that involve the deterioration of cognitive function over time. For those suffering dementia, their quality of life can substantially decrease, and they quickly become dependent on others to help them with even their most basic needs. The prevalence of dementia increases dramatically with age, as a consequence the number of people suffering from dementia at a given time is likely to rise as our population in general ages. As a consequence of this, the government is increasingly interested in determining what method of care is of lower cost. In general, it is often assumed that it is cheaper to care for an individual through family-based care as opposed to caring through nursing facilities. However, this does not take into account costs that are incurred by family members in terms of finances or time. This is an important factor, as dementia patients frequently require full-time care, thus when dementia patients are being cared for through family-based care it is likely that at least one member of the family has reduced hours at work compared to under normal circumstances. When labor and costs are taken into account, studies have shown that for patients with severe levels of dependence it was more economically viable for them to be cared for through nursing home care than through family-based care. Thus, despite the financial costs of nursing home care, it is still equal in cost, or cheaper than family-based care. The financial cost is not the only consideration in regards to deciding the best type of care for those suffering dementia. Dementia is progressive and destroys mental function. When it is a family member or loved one that this is occurring to, the process can be very painful to watch and can cause feelings of helplessness and mental trauma. There are many reports of caregivers of dementia  patients suffering from severe depression as a consequence of watching the progression of the disease (Eisdorfer et al. 2003). As a consequence caring for an individual with dementia exerts significant mental pressure on those responsible.

Human Sexuality-Response Post to Classmates Essay

Human Sexuality-Response Post to Classmates - Essay Example However, with the passage of time, they learn the importance of these attributes. The writer has changed his stance in the next paragraph saying that individuals seek honesty, loyalty, confidence, and sense of humor in the opposite gender. This is totally different from what the writer said in the first paragraph. May be the writer is talking about the middle adulthood when the value of loyalty, sincerity, and other such attributes overshadow the importance of physical attraction. The writer has also talked about the assumed roles of men and women. About the question of same-sex relationships, the writer has said that same sex partners usually look for love because for such people the value of love is more than any other thing even if that love is with some person of the same sex. Moreover, the writer has given examples of a movie and of is own parents revealing the importance of love in relationships. Summing it up, I would say that the overall approach to the discussion questions was good and the discussion was based on facts. This post has been written in a succinct and simple way. For example, the author has briefly answered the question about characteristics that men and women look for in each other. He has written that desires for the other partner change with the passage of time. I think it is absolutely true because at a young age, preferences for both men and women for the partner form the opposite gender are different than what they are as a person ages. The author has mentioned that men do not seek for looks in the partner. I do not agree with this because young men mostly look for physical beauty. However, the author has correctly mentioned that women look for love when they are young and look for a supportive and fatherly figure when they start getting older and mature. About same sex relationships, the author has said

Clinical log Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Clinical log - Essay Example Easily perishable stuff such as milk is refrigerated. Every foodstuff is stored in its category for ease of distribution. The shelves in the facility are chronologically arranged with food types stacked in their respective categories.AFAC serves over 1600 families per week categorized as 3500 adults and 1500 children. Food donated is stored here and later redistributed to the intended recipients. AFAC target vulnerable society members like elderly people that live alone and cannot afford food. Jobless people, college students from poor backgrounds, sick people with no working family members also form part of those who benefit from it. The AFAC Young professional is a group of young people between the ages of 21-40 years who raise awareness and food drives to in aid of the facility. AFAC has a management team and a small full time staff. They heavily rely on members of the community who sign up as volunteers. The whole community with schools, firms and churches pitching in to lend their help supports the project. What doing my clinical analysis I interacted with most members of these interested groups, who, form part of the larger community. The management team is drawn from members of these interest groups with gender been a factor. Foodstuff is mostly donated in bulk mostly in big, heavy packaging’s to be redistributed in smaller portions. These bulky packages are moved around the warehouse by the small team of staff aided volunteers. Lack of proper lifting machinery and technology forces the staff and volunteers to manually do this work. This is a constant health risk to the staff and volunteers with potential injuries always lurking. Muscular aches and back pains are the most common complaints from staff and volunteers. Malnutrition especially amongst children is also a potential program since some vital foods are not on provided on regular basis especially fruits and vegetables, which have important

Applied Microbiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Applied Microbiology - Essay Example Additionally, the accessibility of the microbial genome sequences gives a wide scope of opportunities to understand as well as exploit the microorganisms present in the wine. The influence of molecular revolution in medicinal applications is evidenced by the genetic alteration of bacteria to produce an enzyme that can treat a human disease (Sehgal, 2012). For example, nanotechnology has led to the deliverance of the drug in different forms such as dendrimers, nanoshells and nanotubes to specific genes in humans (Sehgal, 2012). Development of synthetic neology will lead to the extensive application of applied microbiology in the production of biodegradable biomaterials. For instance, it is apparent that bioplastics will replace the production of non-degradable waste materials. In relation to this, microbes such as aerobes, anaerobes as well as photosynthetic bacteria with the ability to accumulate and catabolise polyesters responsible for the formation of bioplastics will be used (Garcia, Luengo, Naharro, Olivera & Sandoval, 2003). Additionally, it is evident that the development of synthetic neology will lead to the large-scale creation of recombinant organisms with the ability to synthesize bioplastics from cheap carbon sources. Apart from replacing non-biodegradable materials, synthetic neology will lead to the production of materials that will be used in the health sector (Garcia et al., 2003). For instance, the polyesters produced by the microorganisms will be used in medical applications like sutures , implants, and urological stents. In addition to this, the polyesters will be used in the treatment of narcolepsy as well as alcohol addiction. Biologic products are derived from natural (biological) products. They include medical products such as vaccines, blood products, and allergenic extracts such as allergy shots. A natural product, on the other hand, is a product of a

Server malware protection policy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Server malware protection policy - Assignment Example Examples of such malware are Viruses, Worms, Trojan horses, Spyware, and Rogue security software. Similarly, the term server refers to whatever computer system domiciling in the physically secured data center owned and operated by the Company. In summation, this includes any organization operating an operating system specifically designed for server usage as determined by the Company. The different types of servers include Microsoft Server 2000 and Microsoft Server 2003. The policy provides that all servers of the company MUST be equipped and fitted with an anti-virus application. The installed anti-virus application should be one that offers a real-time scanning protection of files and applications running on the target system. The scanning of the files will aid in protecting the computer from being attacked by the viruses that may lead to the loss of data. Similarly, the anti-virus is of importance in case non-administrative users have remote access capability of the data processor machine. Again the anti-virus is required if the system is a file server or, HTTP/FTP access is open from the Internet and or if other â€Å"risky† protocols/applications are available to the system from the Internet at the free will of the Organization’s Security Administrator. The server malware protection policy requires that all the mail servers being utilized by the company to have an anti-virus installed in them. For instance, in case the target system is a mail server, then, it MUST be equipped with either an outside or internal anti-virus scanning application. The application’s purpose is to examine all mail destined to and from the mail host. Likewise, while the external anti-virus application scan the inbound mail as a backup is being done, the local anti-virus scanning applications may be put off. The server malware protection policy necessitates that all servers being used by the company to get set with an

Globalisation of Higher Education Essay Example for Free

Globalisation of Higher Education Essay The term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies through cross country flow of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Globalization is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those being education. The effect of globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards an nformation- based society. Globalization has a multi- dimensional impact on the system of education. It promotes new tools and techniques in this area like E- Learning, flexible learning, distance education programs and overseas training. The globalization of education is shaping young children of a country into ‘global citizens with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive information based society. Globalization also facilitates international collaboration and cross- cultural exchange. Globalization of higher education is a major concern for all societies. As the essential driving force of economic, social and human development, education is at the heart of the change that is dramatically affecting our world in the areas of science, technology, economic and culture. This paper will analyze the positive and negative impact of globalization on Higher education for developing countries. Effective education system is the foundation of opportunities to lead a decent life. One should ensure that all Children should have adequate access to education at all income level. The paper argues that education is a core element of society. The basic cause of global inequality is due to the difference in opportunities in education between different countries. People can only contribute and benefit from globalization if they are endowed with knowledge, skills, and values and with the capabilities and rights needed to pursue their basic likelihoods. The accuracy of the analysis is dependent upon the accuracy of the data reported by various people of the country. The result of this study will help all the sectors of the society to understand better, the culture, values and education system of other countries and facilitates its adoption. Educators can also use this result to bring the changes in their areas if necessary. Introduction The term â€Å"Globalization† represents the international system that is shaping most societies today. Globalization is a process by which many areas of human life such as economies, societies, politics, business and cultures have been affected around the world. One of these areas being education. The term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. It s characterized by an accelerated flow of trade, capital and information as well as mobility of individuals, across geographical borders. It reflect comprehensive level of interaction than that has occurred in the past, suggesting something beyond the work â€Å"international†. Globalization means more competition, not just with other companies or institutions in the same city or the same region. Globalization also means that national borders do not limit a nation’s investment, production, innovation and education. Therefore, the term â€Å"globalization† has acquired many emotive commutations. At one extreme, globalization is seen as an irresistible and benign force for delivering economic prosperity to people throughout the world. At the other, it is blamed as a source of all contemporary ills. However, while the theory of globalization is relatively new, the process is not. Roberson (1992) further states that globalization was initially discussed from economic perspectives, but soon after it became a topic for discussions among intellectuals from cultural perspectives as well. According to Giddens â€Å"Globalization the dialectic of homogenization and heterogenization† (1991. p22). In other words, globalization, by intensifying the interconnectedness among different people, things and ideas, homogenizes the world and yet at the same time, the world becomes heterogenized as people are more aware of differences due to the increasing proximity with differences under a globalize world (Giddens, 1991 ). The notion of the world community being transformed into a global village, as introduced in 1960 by Marshall Mc Luhan in an influential book about her newly shared experience of mass media, was likely to be the first expression of the contemporary concept of globalization. Cited in Epstein, 2002). After 1980, accounts of globalization focused on a professed tendency of societies to converge in becoming modern, described initially by Clark Kerr and colleagues as the emergence of industrial man (cited in Robertson, 1992). One critical issue that emerges from all of these restructuring processes is the central role of Knowledge, education and learning for the success of the Global Information Society (GIS) and global information economy. Globalization impacts all aspects of society. Higher education may and business contents seem particularly influenced by them. In the twentieth century, may developing countries have xperienced growth in the educational facilities available to them due to the entry of institution from the west. Some believe that this process is an invaluable opportunity for the people of the developing counties to increase their skills and standard of education. Other fear that it is merely a modern version of cultural imperialism that will lead to the creation of a universal, ultimately western society. People can only contribute and benefit from globalization if they endowed with knowledge, skills and with capabilities and rights needed to pursue their basic livelihoods. They need employment and incomes, and a healthy environment. These are the essential conditions with empower them to participate fully as citizens in their local, national and global communities. Education is a major concern for all societies. As the foundation and essential driving force of economic, social and human development, education is at the heart of the change that is dramatically affecting our world in the areas of science, technology, economics and culture. Steven Schwartz (http:// www. Ssn.. flinders. edu. u) believed that â€Å"Education, where possible, hould be integrated into the private sector because ‘higher education is increasingly and international enterprise’ and thus will increasingly be pressured and drawn into deregulation and privatization. † This paper analyses the effect of globalization on higher education and also discusses about the impact of globalization on higher education, various opportunities and challenges on the society. Imp act of Globalization of Higher Education. Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalization. The effects of Globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are oreseeing changes with in school system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the role of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards and information- based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new form of cultural imperialism. It brings rapid development in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within school system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge. The rise of a global society, driven by technology and communication development are shaping hildren, the future citizens of the world into ‘ global citizens’, intelligent people with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive. , information based society. The future of countries often lies with in their ability to compete in a global market where industrial based economies are giving way to knowledge based industries, realizing the importance of â€Å"knowledge skills and the intellectual capacity to meet the challenges of accelerated change and uncertainty†. Education is becoming a lifelong learning and training process, developing ransferable skills and knowledge that can be applied to competitive markets where knowledge and information is being trades as a commodity. Although globalization seems to be unavoidable to many counties and numerous initiative and efforts have been made to adapt to it with aims at taking the opportunities created from it to develop their societies and people, in recent years there are also increasing international concerns with the dangerous impacts of globalization on digenous and national developments. Various social movements have been initiated against the threats of globalization particularly in eveloping countries. The negative impacts of globalization include various types of economic, political, and cultural colonization by advanced countries on those developing and under- developed countries. In evitable, how to maximize the opportunities and benefits from globalization to support local developments and reduce the threats and negative impacts of globalization will be the major concerns of developing countries. Opportunities of globalization of higher education Knowledge is the driving forces in the rapidly changing globalize economy and society. Quantity nd quality of specialized human resources determine their competence in the global market. Emergence of knowledge results in both challenges and opportunities. It is well known that the growth of the global economy has increased opportunities for those countries with good levels of education. Globalization has a multi-dimensional impact on the system of education. It promotes new tools and techniques in these areas like- E- learning, flexible learning, distance educational programme and overseas training. The introduction of technology into the classroom is changing the nature f delivering education to the students is gradually giving way to a new form of electronic literacy , more programs and education materials are made available in electronic form. Teachers are preparing lectures in the electronic form and even students are presenting assignments and giving papers in the electronic form. The blackboards have been replaced by the LCD’s. The chalk has been replaced by the pointers and the power point presentations. Books have been replaced by compact discs. Even grades and the exams are gradually becoming available through electronic means and notebooks are replaced by laptops. Now the students do not have to carry heavy bags to the classrooms. Even the students can be examined through computer managed learning system and do tutorials exercises on a computer rather than in the classroom. Even, the technology has given the opportunity to deliver the material through electronic source i. e. via power point presentation and even the notes can be distributed to the students via electronic mail. With such changes and the emergence of video conferencing and the internet, the barriers of distance are being broken down at a rapid rate, due to the key aspect of globalization. Students and adults or in other works each and every person can now learn in variety of ways and there is no longer any need to be physically present in the education institutions in order to learn. The material is becoming readily available over internet, through video conferencing and tape recordings. Teacher can deliver the lecture to the whole class with the help of video conferencing without being physically present in the class. Now, the student of can get the education from any part of the world without traveling over there. The person can stay in his /her own country and et the education of which country he/ she wishes without going over there. Students can learn any time and at any place. Anyone can maintain libraries of texts, images computer software and other forms of data, anywhere at any time. The rapid growth of television services, with their immense influence as media of mass communication, has been very relevant in the technological shift. Other larger contribution to this shift includes the transistor and space satellites. Communication and information based technology over the years is the internet. This is a massive network of computers located hroughout the world. Developments in the delivery of education is allowing for individuals to explore new areas of learning and thinking that could not be done with pen and paper. They are discovering knowledge through inquiry and experimentation rather than memorizing facts in a teacher dominated classroom setting. Another opportunity of international trade leads to allocation of resources that is consistent with comparative advantage. Globalization results in specialization which enhances productivity. Thus, the international trade, in general, is beneficial and that restrictive trade practices impede rowth. That’s why many off the emerging economies, which originally depended on a growth model of import substitution, have moved over to a policy of outward orientation. Globalization of higher eduction also gives the opportunity in movement of capital. Capital is a key factor of production. Capital flows across countries have played an important role in enhancing the production base. Without capital any type of economic activity is not possible. Capital mobility enables the total saving of the world to be distributed among countries which have the highest investment potential. Emergence of strong capital market has been one of the important features of the current process of globalization while the growth in capital and foreign exchange markets have facilitated the transfer of resources across borders, the gross turnover in foreign exchange markets has been extremely large. The internationalization of higher education can be linked to various internal and external changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labor market, which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers and workers with deeper nderstandings of languages, cultures and business methods from all over the world. â€Å"Modern education is almost exclusively focused on preparing children for an urban future. † Challenges of globalization of higher education No doubts, higher education has attained a key position in the knowledge society under globalize economy. However, the challenges faced are immense and far- reaching. Its impact on the clientele via, individuals, institutions, systems and societies are not only not clear but also not comprprehentible at this moment unless it is viewed in the context of various other factors that re simultaneously operating on the higher education system. Some agrees that the rapid cross national flows of people, goods , capital and information may dissolve the nation states, push institutions( university is the one) into a common mould where as others disagree. It is assumed that globalization promises dramatic and rewarding change to the higher education system, of societies, which are relatively stable in their political, social and institutional make up, while for the will performing higher education system. It is also true that globalization has given the dvanced economies a huge advantage as they had made enough preparation prior to its launching while others are caught in the trap without any preparation. Integration into world economy today’s implies not only mastery of traditional knowledge but also the capacity to acquire the new skills required by a knowledge society. It is therefore evident that an unequal sharing of the new communication and information technologies only serves to reinforce existing inequalities. While education deficits are obviously greater in developing countries, this is a major issue in developed countries as well. In many industrialized countries there is a persistent problem of illiteracy and low skills, which is and important source of social exclusion. Unequal access to education also fuels growing wage inequality and worsen the income distribution. The uneducated and unskilled in industrialized counties face sever disadvantage in an increasingly competitive global market. However, the provision of both primary and secondary schooling increased during the 90’s across the globe, but progress is inadequate and hides the differences between counties and regions. There are many evidences that the more rapid progress is possible if the political will nd the resources exists, in high and low income countries alike. The increase in poverty in the world is the most tragic phenomenon in this era of abundance. It is the cause of marginal and the exclusion of increasingly bigger groups of the world population and in particular, affects children, the young and women. As a consequence, we see the development of cultures of poverty and marginalization that lock the same people into the cycle of poverty and reinforce their exclusion. But it is still the inequality with regards to knowledge that constitutes one of the biggest challenges of our societies. The traditional raw materials and non renewable natural resources under threat of extinction no longer occupy the most important place in the process of production and development . It is knowledge in itself that has become one of the key resources of economic growth. The introduction of technology is also becoming a challenge to the society. As the implementation of technology and communication to be successful and to educate a society, both the students and teachers need to be technologically literate. Communication technology is offering new challenges for students of all abilities as they can discuss issues of concern with heir fellow students from around the world. A shift in education is becoming evident where more responsibility is being placed on the individual for his or her learning, instead of solely on the teacher. Subsequently, the teachers themselves also need to be highly technologically literate, needing the competence and confidence to prepare students for a global information society. Just because of technology and communication seems to be creating in human life between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’ resulting in a bifurcated society of those who can afford such information technology and those who can’t. so too does globalization. While education institutions in western societies are embracing technology, developing countries are once again left behind, too weak and fragile to implement development programs for education, let alone introduce technology as well. There are severe limitations in delivering basic services. A lack of infrastructure and funding makes it difficult to implement any technological and communication advancements. However, despite differences in economy, political, cultures and society, second and third worlds have adopted educational ideals from western thought and are anxious to appear odern and therefore promote education as a symbol of modernity and development to their own population and the foreign countries. The spread of education internationally, as a result of globalization, has clearly had effects on Cultures worldwide. Now the sources of wealth come from knowledge and communication instead of natural resources and physical labour, which once characterized the United States as a n industrial society. This is a global rather than a national economy. The new economy puts a premium on intellectual capital and the people who produce it. This means that the demand for igher education is expanding dramatically. Education is needed throughout a lifetime, and the marketplace for that education is international. This growth makes education appealing to the private sector. Educational institutions have reacted by becoming more market oriented. Due to this increasing free trade around the globe- to end protection in many sectors so that there is more competition and privatization, education is increasingly being drawn into this global capitalist competition. The internationalization of education has become one of the key themes of ducational policy and planning in the 1990’s and the integration of worldwide capital and labour markets; educators are being forced to respond to a new set of challenges. The demographics of higher education have changed substantially. Less than one fifth of today’s college students meet the traditional stereotype of attending school full time. For the new majority of students, higher education is not as central to their lives as it was for previous generations of students. Research shows they want a very different relationship with their college than students have historically had. They are unwilling to pay for activities and services they do not use. Higher education is being subjected to greater criticism than in the past on issues varying from low productivity and higher cost to the quality of leadership and the inadequacy of technology use. This is an invitation to a private sector that rightly or wrongly sees higher education as the next health care industry. Another challenge is of currency trade. Currency trade has become an end in itself. However, the volatility in the foreign exchange has created often times panic situations. The most recent xample of this was the East Asian crisis. Contagion of financial crises is a worrying phenomenon. When one country faces a crisis, it affects others. It is not as if financial crises are solely caused by foreign exchange traders. Another, major concern is to deliver world class education with updated curriculum and practical exposure. This is possible only by attracting talented and experienced persons in to academics. At present it is difficult to assess not only the nature and dimensions of globalization, but also what it means to the field of education. A few educational researchers have attempted to made onnections between the several dimensions of globalization and the policies of education. Globalization of Higher Education in India India is also following the global phenomenon. As part of globalization, the economic reform packages were introduced in India in the beginning of 1991. These reform packages imposed a heavy compression on the public budgets on education sector, more specifically so on higher education. This has trickled down to public expenditure on education in general, and higher education in particular. Indian government and Indian corporate sector has recognized the importance of management ducation in the ganging global scenario. Today under the reforming economic conditions, integration of the Indian economy with world economy presupposes efficiency and competitiveness in the domestic front as well as in the international arena. As the process of globalization is technology-driven, and knowledge driven, the very success of economic reform policies critically depends upon the competence of human capital. But, what is observed is the reverse. Even within the education sector, relative priority assigned to higher education has been on the decline. It is to be realized that higher education institutions lay an important role insetting the academic standard for primary and secondary education. They are also responsible for not only providing the specialized human capital in order to corner the gains from globalization, but also for training inside the country, provide policy advice, etc. Globalization is expected to have a positive influence on the volume, quality an spread of knowledge through increased interaction among the various states. Today our education system is strong enough but central and state governments should change their roles with in the education system, re- inventing them as facilitating supervisory rganizations. Teacher training, infrastructure and syllabuses need to be urgently upgraded. Industry should come forward to share experience with students and to offer more opportunities for live projects. Commercial institutions offering specialized education have come up everywhere. In view of globalization many corporate universities, both foreign and Indian, are encroaching upon our government institutions. Our Institutes like IIM’S and IIT’S have produced world class professionals. These institutes imparts quality education as per industry expectations and give due importance to institute Industry interface. Under the new scenario, Government – Private partnership is becoming important in Management Education. Now India is a transforming country. We are near to achieve status of developed nation. The demand for higher education has been growing rapidly with comparatively faster growth in enrolment in higher educational institutions than the growth in number of higher educational institutions. The growth rates are doubled among the students enrolled in post- graduate and research, while the number of institutions for post –graduate and research studies has grown at a slower rate in 1990’s than in 1980’s. India is witnessing new era in the field of Management Education. Many Corporate groups like Reliance, Nirma, Tata, Sterlite etc have promoted Management Institutes. Some reputed foreign universities are also coming to India. But government should issue some guidelines so that fees structure remains with in certain limit and those who are from economically poor background have same opportunity. Conclusion Globalization has had many obvious effects on educational technology and communication systems change the way education is delivered as well as roles played by both teachers and tudents. The development of this technology is facilitating the transition from an industrial based society to an information-based one. At the same time, there is a dark side to globalization and to the very openness of the new information systems. While the richest countries grow richer, the poor are becoming poorer. Income, information and education gaps between the rich and the poor are widening not narrowing: economic crises, trade imbalances and structural adjustments have precipitated a moral crisis in many countries, tearing the basic social and ultural fabric of many families and communities apart, resulting in increasing youth unemployment , suicide, violence, racism and drug abuse and anti social behavior form schools. In the 21st century, education systems face the dual challenge of equipping students with the new knowledge, skills and values needed to be competitive in a global market while at the same time producing graduates who are responsible adults, good citizens both of their country and of the world. Thus, globalization challenges us to rethink not only how much education is needed but also its ultimate purposes.

Critical thinking Essay Example for Free

Critical thinking Essay RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650), A FRENCH PHILOSOPHER AND MATHEMATICIAN, IS BEST KNOWN FOR HIS MEDITATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. THIS FORM OF PHILOSOPHY IS A BODY OF WORK IN WHICH HE ATTEMPTS TO WIPE AWAY ALL HIS PRESUMPTIONS, REBUILDING HIS KNOWLEDGE FROM THE GROUND UP, AND ACCEPTING AS TRUE ONLY THOSE CLAIMS WHICH ARE ABSOLUTELY CERTAIN. IT WAS ESSENTIAL THAT THE FOUNDATIONS TO HIS BELIEFS WERE SOLID; IF ANY ONE OF THEM WERE AT ALL IN DOUBT, HE WOULD LOSE CREDIBILITY FOR HIS ENTIRE STRUCTURE OF KNOWLEDGE. THUS, DESCARTES CREATED A METHOD IN WHICH HE WOULD ELIMINATE THOSE BELIEFS WHICH HE COULD NOT BE ENTIRELY CERTAIN OF. HE CALLED THIS METHOD – THE METHOD OF DOUBT. BY USING THE METHOD OF DOUBT, DESCARTES QUESTIONED EVERYTHING THAT HAD ANY POSSIBILITY OF UNCERTAINTY, UNTIL HE WAS ABLE TO PROVE THAT IT WAS CERTAIN OR UNTIL HE BECAME CERTAIN THAT THERE WAS NO CERTAINTY (DESCARTES 1641, 1-4). HE COMPARED IT TO â€Å"THAT OF A MAN WHO TAKES ALL THE APPLES OUT OF A BARREL ONE BY ONE, INSPECTS THEM, AND THEN PUTS THE SOUND ONES BACK† (WILLIAMS 1978, 59). DESCARTES BELIEVED THAT ALL KNOWLEDGE IS RELATED AND THEREFORE DECIDED HE WOULD REBUILD THE EDIFICE OF KNOWLEDGE BASED UPON THE CORE TRUTHS THAT REMAIN AFTER THE USAGE OF THE METHOD OF  DOUBT (DESCARTES 1641, 1). IN-ORDER FOR DESCARTES TO BE ABLE TO ELIMINATE THOSE BELIEFS WHICH HE COULD NOT BE ENTIRELY CERTAIN OF, HE WOULD HAVE TO START FROM SCRATCH BY DISCARDING ALL THAT HE HAD PREVIOUSLY KNOWN. HE STARTED BY QUESTIONING EXISTENCE -DO I EXIST? DOES GOD EXIST? HE PROVED HIS EXISTENCE BY STATING THAT IN ORDER TO HAVE THESE DOUBTS, HE MUST EXIST. THE FACT THAT HE IS ABLE TO CONTEMPLATE HIS OWN EXISTENCE IS PROOF THAT HE EXISTS. THIS IS WHERE HE BRINGS IN THE PHRASE, â€Å"I THINK, THEREFORE I AM†. THIS IS THE LOGICAL ARGUMENT FOR KNOWING WE EXIST (DESCARTES 1641, 4-6). HE PROVES THAT  Professor Keton THERE IS A GOD BY USING THE COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT- â€Å"SOMETHING LESSER CANNOT CAUSE SOMETHING GREATER. † GREATER/LESSER IS REFERRING TO QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES NOT QUANTITATIVE. FOR EXAMPLE, A MONKEY IS ON A DIFFERENT LEVEL AND IS TO BE HELD TO DIFFERENT STANDARDS THAN A PERSON. DESCARTES SAYS, â€Å"I HAVE AN IDEA OF A PERFECT BEING- IT’S AN INFINITE BEING WHOS OMNIPRESENT, OMNIPOTENT, ALL GOOD GOD. † THEN HE THINKS, â€Å"SINCE I AM FINITE I CANNOT BE THE SOURCE OF THE IDEA OF AN INFINITE BEING. † HE REALIZES THAT FINITE VS. INFINITE IS A QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN US AND GOD. THROUGH POINTS ONE AND TWO, HE COMES TO THE REALIZATION THAT AN INFINITE BEING HAD TO HAVE COME FROM A DIFFERENT SOURCE, AND THE ONLY INFINITE SOURCE IS A PERFECT BEING. HE THEN CONCLUDED THAT GOD MUST HAVE PUT THIS IDEA IN HIS HEAD, THEREFORE GOD MUST EXIST (DESCARTES 1641, 14-16). DESCARTES KNEW IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT AND IMPRACTICAL TO EXAMINE ALL OF ONE’S BELIEFS ONE BY ONE, SO HE GROUPED BELIEFS TOGETHER WHICH ALLOWED HIM TO QUESTION AND INQUIRE WHOLE CLASSES OF BELIEFS AND PROVE OR DISPROVE THEM BASED ON THEIR DERIVATION OF THE SAME SOURCE, SUCH AS OUR  SENSES, IMAGINATION, OR ABSTRACT KNOWLEDGE (REASON). DESCARTES ARGUES THAT OUR SENSES CANNOT BE TRUSTED BECAUSE SOMETIMES WE DON’T PERCEIVE THINGS CORRECTLY; IT CAN BE DUE TO MIRAGES, HALLUCINATIONS, OR DREAMS (DESCARTES 1641, 1-2). MANY TIMES WE BELIEVE THINGS HAVE ACTUALLY HAPPENED WHEN IN REALITY IT WAS JUST A MIND TRICK. THIS BRINGS US TO WHY WE CAN’T TRUST OUR IMAGINATION. OUR IMAGINATION COMES FROM OUR EXPERIENCES IN THE REAL WORLD WHICH STEMS FROM OUR SENSES, WHICH WE HAVE JUST DISCOVERED WE CANNOT TRUST. DESCARTES BELIEVED THAT A LACK OF COMPLETE CERTAINTY IS A GOOD REASON TO DOUBT. THIS WAS THE PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD OF DOUBT, ALSO KNOWN AS ‘RADICAL SKEPTICISM’ (DESCARTES 1641, 1-2). I PERSONALLY THINK THIS METHOD IS A PLEASING APPROACH TO VALIDATING SUPPOSEDLY KNOWN FACTS THAT MAY NOT BE FACTUAL AT ALL. MANY THINGS WE BELIEVE AS FACTS ARE ACTUALLY THEORIES OR STATEMENTS HANDED DOWN TO US FROM PREVIOUS GENERATIONS WITH NO EVIDENCE AS TO WHY THEY ARE Professor Keton FACTS. ANYTHING THAT HAS EVEN THE SMALLEST PERCENTAGE OF DOUBT SHOULD BE QUESTIONED AND INQUIRED UPON UNTIL IT IS ABLE TO BE PROVEN AS FACT. THIS CONCEPT IS VERY SIMILAR TO THE CONCEPT OF ‘INNOCENT UNTIL PROVEN GUILTY’. JUST LIKE A PERSON HAS THE STATUS OF ‘INNOCENT’ UNTIL THERE IS SUFFICIENT AMOUNT OF EVIDENCE TO PROVE HIM GUILTY, SO TOO BY ANYTHING, IF ONE WOULD WANT TO CHANGE THE STATUS QUO OF SOMETHING, ONE SHOULD BE REQUIRED TO BRING SUITABLE SUPPORT TO PROVE HIS THEORY. WHENEVER ONE WANTS SOMEONE TO PROVE TO THEM OTHERWISE, ONE WILL ALWAYS ASK FOR VALID REASONING AND EVIDENCE. THE REASON FOR THIS IS BECAUSE THE HUMAN MIND WAS CREATED IN WHICH WE LIKE TO QUESTION AND UNDERSTAND THE DEPTHS OF THINGS. IF WE HAVE ANY SORT OF DOUBTS IN OUR MINDS. THAT SOMETHING IS TRUE OR WHY SOMETHING IS TRUE, WE LIKE TO ASK IN ORDER TO BRING OUR CURIOSITY TO REST. FOLLOWING THIS OBSERVATION, IF ONE DOESN’T HAVE A REASON TO DOUBT SOMETHING, ONE AUTOMATICALLY FEELS SATISFIED WITH THE OUTCOME BECAUSE THEY KNOW IT IS THE ABSOLUTE TRUTH, AND CANNOT BE PROVEN OTHERWISE. IN CONCLUSION, I COMMEND DESCARTES’ REASONING AND THE FACT THAT HE WANTED TO ESTABLISH AN UNBIASED FOUNDATION IN ORDER TO INSURE THE CERTAINTY OF THINGS. ALTHOUGH MANY OF THE THINGS DESCARTES HAD QUESTIONED WERE THINGS HE ALREADY KNEW TO BE TRUE, HE FOLLOWED HIS METHODOLOGY. IN ORDER TO BRING REASONING AND CERTAINTY TO HIS BELIEFS. DESCARTESS FOUNDATIONAL PHILOSOPHY RESTS CENTRALLY ON THE METHOD OF DOUBT, WHICH REQUIRES A FIRST-PERSON OBSERVATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE THINKING INDIVIDUAL AND THE SURROUNDING WORLD HE OR SHE PERCEIVES. I BELIEVE THIS IS A GREAT APPROACH TO PHILOSOPHY, AND IT HAS ALSO HAD GREAT INFLUENCE UPON LATER PHILOSOPHERS, INCLUDING KANT AND HUSSERL (WILLIAMS 1978, 124). Professor Keton REFERENCES DESCARTES, RENE. 1641. MEDITATIONS ON FIRST PHILOSOPHY. TRANSLATED BY JONATHAN BENNETT. 2007. WILLIAMS, BERNARD. (1978) DESCARTES: THE PROJECT OF PURE ENQUIRY. NEW YORK: PENGUIN.

Reformation of Chinas Pension Scheme

Reformation of Chinas Pension Scheme During the time of writing my dissertation, I have has many help from people both intellectually and emotionally. I would like to take this space to thank first of all, my supervisor, Mr. Robert Plumb, for offering me the support and guidance all the way through. I am grateful to my friends in the BSc Actuarial Science class for the great time I had during the three-year study at Cass Business School. I would like to thank all the lectures for making our lives at school so convenient and pleasant. Last but not least, many thanks to my family and other friends who have always given me encouragement and support during this process. Abstract The rapid ageing population in China has slowed down economic progress. Certain steps should be taken in relation to the pension system in order to cope with such a situation. There are several models of pension reform in the world, the most important one is perhaps the multi-pillar pension system advocated by World Bank. China actually reformed the current pension scheme based on this multi-pillar model. With a responsible attitude, the experience gained in Chinese pension reform will lead to a stronger and deeper national system that can eventually provide social welfare for the entire Chinese population. In Chapter 1, I will introduce the main types of pension schemes and the historical background of China pension system and illustrate how it developed. The current situation of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension system is displayed by the Melbourne Mercer Global Pension Index in Chapter 2. The four main problems of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension system and the urgency of reform is explained fully in Chapter 3. The different types of reform are followed by, along with what China chose to do in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, the performance of reform is evaluated. Chapter 6 is mainly about the problem pointed out in the recent China Two Conference and the future trend of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension reform. Table of Contents Acknowledgements2 Abstracts-3 Chapter 1 Introduction-5 Chapter 2 Current situation of China pension system8 Chapter 3 Problems of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension system and reasons for pension reform10 Chapter 4 Different types of pension reform and what China chose to do15 Chapter 5 Evaluation of pension reforming-20 Chapter 6 Conclusion-23 Reference25 Chapter 1 Introduction Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s population has been ageing rapidly, and financial support for the pension system is facing a number of resultant problems. The system itself is also divided unevenly across regions and sectors. Furthermore, globalization makes the transaction between countries and sectors more difficult. Therefore, reforming Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension scheme has become an urgent issue. This report will begin with a brief overview of the historical background of the Chinese pension system. It will move onto the pension crisis and relevant problems at present, followed by the different types of pension reform and the way China has chosen to reform. Finally it will conclude with the evaluation of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension reform. The main goal of pension reform is to ensure the elderly live a peaceful life in retirement. In order to achieve this goal, China still has to solve a lot of economic and social problems. The Chinese government started its national pension system reformation in the 1990s by setting up a three-pillar state pension system in urban areas, which is a remarkable step in pension reform. Recently, Melbourne Mercer Global Pension Index revealed that the Chinese pension system is facing a large challenge. There are five main problems occur in Chinese pension system: Financial problem; Ageing population; Institutional problem and problems occur in transaction. Several types of pension reform can be chosen and after considering the situation in China, the multi-pillar system stands out to become a wise solution. Compare to those developed countries, Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension reform still has a long way to go. With positive attitude, we believe that the system will become mature in the fu ture. The main types of pension scheme as follows: A pension scheme can be classified as a defined benefit scheme or a defined contribution scheme according to the determination of benefits. A defined contribution (DC) scheme is dependent on the amount of money contributed and the performance of the investment. A traditional defined benefit (DB) scheme is a plan in which the benefit on retirement is determined by a set formula, rather than depending on investment returns. Another definition of a defined benefit scheme is that it is an arrangement where the benefits payable to the members are determined by the schemeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rules. Value of Pension Fund Assets DB Value of Financial Assets DC Value of Pension Fund Assets Value of Financial Assets Basically, the pension scheme in China is a defined benefit, PAYGO system for older employees and retirees, multi-pillar system combining social pooling and individual accounts for younger employees. This system includes (a) a mandatory defined benefit paid out of social pooling account, (b) a monthly annuity paid out of the defined contribution, employee individual account, and (c) a voluntary supplementary individual account. After briefly explaining the main types of pension scheme, the historical background of China pension system will be illustrate as follows: In 1949 the Chinese government adopted a provisional constitution of the common Programà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?, which mentioned that the labour insurance system should be introduced progressively in companies; this provided a legal basis for the establishment of a unified, national labour insurance system. On February 25, 1951, the Central Peoples Government promulgated The Peoples Republic of China Labour Insurance Regulations, which required companies to implement pensions, medical insurance and industrial injury insurance for their employees. This was Chinas first social security law; it clearly defined insurance coverage, insurance premium collection, insurance items and standards, as well as the implementation and supervision of the insurance industry as a whole. During the next three decades the government gradually improved the pension system. Then, in 1984 China overhauled the entire pension system. The change was started in some rural areas first. The system was based on being paid mainly by individuals, supplemented by the communities, supported by government policies and resulted in the accumulation of funds in personal accounts. In 1991, thanks to economic development, the government established a combined system with a state pension, company pension and private pension. Basis of calculating accrual of pension insurance during that time: Range of income Rate of pension insurance 60% 60%-300% of average income actual income >300% of average income 300% In 1997 the Chinese government formulated a new policy, which started to establish a unified nationwide pension system for every enterprise employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s insurance. Chinas basic pension system is a combined model of state and individual accounts. The basic pension covers workers in urban enterprises; all urban enterprises and their employees must fulfill the obligation to pay the basic pension. At present, employers contribute about 20%, and employees 8%, of the total income. The rates paid by employers are partly used in the state pension and the rest goes into the personal accounts; the rates paid by employees are used in private accounts. In 1997, the policy became clearer. It can now be seen that the main purpose of the basic pension in the future is to protect the basic livelihood of retirees in their twilight years. After several years of reform, the people involved in pension scheme increased from 86.71 million (at end of 1997) to 108.02 million (at the end of 2001); the number of people receiving the basic pensions raised from 25.33 million to 33.81 million. The average monthly basic pension increased from 430 RMB to 556 RMB. In order to ensure the timely and full payment of the basic pension in recent years, the Chinese government have made efforts to improve the pooling level and constantly increased the financial input into the basic pension fund. From 1998 to 2001 the central government expenditures for pension fund subsidies amounted to 86.1 billion RMB. Chapter 2 Current situation of China pension system Recently, Melbourne Mercer Global Pension Index revealed that the Chinese pension system is facing a large challenge. They measured the ranking according to the adequacy, sustainability and comprehensiveness of the system in each state. From the comparison of the private and public pension systems index in five continents, across eleven countries, Chinas system achieved relatively low ratings. This shows that Chinas growing pension system needs to be further developed and reformed in order to cope with continued pressure from the ageing population, and in order to remain competitive in the world. According to the pension index (total 100) estimates, the Netherlands ranks first, with an index of 76.1, followed by Australia (74.0), Sweden (73.5) and Canada (73.2). The UK ranked fifth with 63.9, while the lowest-ranked pension systems are those of Japan (41.5), China (48.0) and Germany (48.2).    Melbourne Mercer Global Pension Index Country Overall index value Sub-index values Adequacy Weighting 40% Sustainability Weighting 35% Integrity Weighting 25% Netherlands 76.1 80.5 62.5 88.2 Australia 74.0 68.1 71.0 87.8 Sweden 73.5 68.5 75.2 79.1 Canada 73.2 76.2 64.2 80.9 UK 63.9 56.6 56.4 86.3 USA 59.8 49.2 69.4 63.4 Chile 59.6 48.9 54.1 84.5 Singapore 57.0 51.7 68.9 49.1 Germany 48.2 60.8 44.3 33.7 China 48.0 64.7 38.5 34.7 Japan 41.5 39.2 34.4 55.2 Average 61.4 60.4 58.1 67.5 Source: Melbourne Mercer Global Pension Index Among these countries there was no one pension system which achieved A-Level (an index of more than 80). Mercer said that this shows that even the worlds most advanced pension system needs to be adjusted in order to ensure that the support is sufficient for a rapidly aging population. Although the lowest-ranked countries are not yet falling into the lowest level, the category E (an index of less than 35). However if the major defects are not resolved, the effectiveness and sustainability of all these systems will face challenges. Chapter 3 Problems of China pension system and reasons of pension reforming Chinas pension system is actually still in personal accounts, which are kind of on a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"PAYGOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ system, combined with some public administration. The system is presently in a transition period. Of the results, the following problems stand out: 3.1 Financial Problems Firstly there are the financing problems. The actual payment rate is low and it keeps decreasing. Since the payment of the transition cost is still a problem, the pension accounts in many places have fallen into financial bankruptcy. According to the statistics from the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, the state-owned enterprises owe 38 billion RMB to the state in unpaid pensions all over the country. That is why the money raised in personal accounts is being used to pay current retirees. Even so, the funding is still not enough and when there is a deficit in financing, the local tax revenue is used to bridge the gap. In fact, the local and central government is working to save a lot of places where the pension co-ordination is already in bankruptcy. If the situation does not improve, it could threaten the sustainability of the central government. Another financial problem is that the personal account is actually just a name, which means it guarantees nothing. Since the Govern ment has not clearly informed us how they will pay for the transition costs over the past few years, all the money that has been raised in these accounts for funds has been used to pay the current pensions of retired employees, which turns personal accounts into empty accounts. One of the biggest progresses in Chinese pension reform is the introduction of a defined contribution scheme. It is compulsory for the workers to join the savings plan, therefore the welfare responsibilities are transferred from the government and enterprises to individuals. However, an important question makes people pause for thought: will the funding of this defined contribution plan really indicate the fulfilling of the fund, or it is just a fanciful à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"PAYGOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ plan with no actual fund that plays the same role as the pillar I scheme. This issue has already led to misbehaviour in some local authorities. Some of the contributions to personal accounts have been used to pay current retirees, which leads to empty accounts and all the time the transition costs remain unclear. Implicit pension debt from the restructuring costs arose in the process of the old PAYGO pension system through the accumulation scheme. After we established the partly-accumulated system with social pooling combing individual accounts, the pension included two parts: a basic pension and an individual account pension. However, people who retired before the pension reformations did not have sufficient accumulation in individual accounts, while those who started to work before reform but retiring after reform only have limited personal accounts accumulated, and the basic pension can only provide a limited level of protection. Although there are no or only limited personal accounts pension accumulation for these two kinds of retirees, the commitments made under their old pension scheme still have to fulfilled, therefore this formed a pensions debt. Under the current PAYGO system, because the right of pensions is implied, the debt is called a hidden debt. However, when the pension system transferred to a whole or partly accumulation based one, the implicit debt became obvious. In order to ensure the continuity and fairness of the pension system, the new system must assume the responsibility for the debt. The Government has to fulfil the pension rights of those retirees. In our country, apart from these two parts of pensions, the additional pension to the retirees caused by inflation or wage increasing also belongs to the scope of implicit debt of the pension, generally speaking, Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s implicit pension debt includes payments to retired employees, transitional pension contribution to those who started work before the reform, as well as the adjustment fee applied to inflation and wage growth. Another important cause of the financing problems is that there are no specific responsibilities for historical debt between different levels of government. Our government did not specify the individual responsibilities between companies and governments with regard to the debt caused in transition period. The greatest problem of dealing with implicit debts is a lack of motivation and unclear responsibility allocation. Not only in the experimental areas, but also in other cities. Every party attempts to avoid its responsibilities. Both parties rely on each otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial input and lack of motivation in terms of the pension supervision. Therefore an increasing deficit became inevitable. 3.2 Ageing Population Secondly, the ageing of the population has now become a huge issue for many countries in the world. The problem is however, much more serious in China. Since China has a large population base, plus nearly 30 years of reform and opening up, peoples living standards have increased greatly. Health and medical conditions have been markedly improved. People expect to live longer and the elderly population increases every year; it is now more than 160 million. China has become the worlds largest elderly populous country, accounting for 1/5 of the total elderly population of the world, and 1/2 of Asia. Currently about 12% of the total population in China is aged over 60, although it is expected that this number will increase to 26% by 2050 because of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"one-childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ policy and the improvement in life expectancy. Now, the ratio of the working-age population to the retirement-age population is 8:1 and it will decrease to 2:5 by 2050. The average age in China is now 31 and it will reach 40 in 2050. The distribution of population in China Source: World Bank Institute (Dr. Wang Yan) This scenario showed that with a gradual decline in future population growth, Chinas labour force in 2020 to 2025 will stop growing, and decline thereafter. However, the population aged 65 and over will continue to grow. Therefore, the elderly dependency ratio will rise from 11% to 25% by 2030 and 36% by 2050. The system dependency ratio will not be less than the current 30%, which means that three workers support one retiree; by 2030 the ratio will rapidly reach 69% and 79% by 2050. The PAYGO system in 2000 has a 60 billion surplus, but the gap in pension income and expenditure will be significantly expanded. Over the next few years, the accumulation of pension reserves will become negative, and in 2050 it will reach 102,730 billion RMB. It is clear that the growing pension deficit will pose a threat to financial stability, and has already brought instability to Chinas future economic development. It has significantly increased the financial pressure on the system and makes the need for further reforms even more urgent. Nowadays, there are only 170 million employees are members of a pension scheme; that is less than 15% of the population. As the population grows older, if the current pension provision remains the same, the pension funds in China will have a deficit in next five years; furthermore, this can lead to a deficit in trillions by 2040. The national pension funds could be short 2.5 trillion RMB (which is around US$ 368 billion) over the next 20 years if nothing is done to remedy this now. 3.3 Institutional Problem Thirdly, the system itself is not well developed. The pension system is divided at all administrative levels. In 1999, 27 provinces were supposed to achieve co-ordination of the provincial funds according to documentation, but in fact only 5 (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing and Hainan) out of 27 provinces fully realized this co-ordination. In the other 22 provinces, only 1%-2% of the money from different cities was gathered in order to establish public funds. Due to the lack of co-ordination there are five provinces that have yet to establish such a fund, which means the policy was not really working out. Furthermore, the current co-ordination is not perfect in many ways. The collection and expenditure of pensions were not administered separately by different organizations. Also because of the payment strategy, which is that companies pay the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"netà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ value (pension income minus the money paid to retired employee) into funds, the contribution rates b etween provinces and cities, in some cases even between companies, have great differences. Moreover, the coverage of pension systems is narrow and they have regional imbalances. Until the end of 1998, the basic pension provision covered only 78.4% of employees of state-owned enterprises, 16.2% of group companies and 5.4% of other urban enterprises. There were no pension plans for self-employed and individual entrepreneurs in cities. For rural areas, there are some creative plans by local officers, but again coverage is very limited. The coverage of pension scheme in China is restricted based on employment in the work unit, rather than on citizenship, which means the reform only targets a small number of the population. This is in contrast to developed countries, where the pension system is relatively mature and covers nearly all of the workforce. In these countries, what they need to do is to avoid large future deficits and unsustainable ageing populations. However in China, there is far more to consider. More than half of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s population lives in rural areas. As a bequest of past economic and pension policies, there is great inequality in both economic development and pension coverage between the urban and rural areas (urban areas are mainly the eastern coastal areas and rural areas are mainly the western part of China); the urban population is generally better covered than rural and migrant populations. The special household registration system, which was used to control the movement of people between urban and rural areas, helped split the population into urban and rural. The productive workers from the rural areas migrated to cities for more attractive working opportunities and higher incomes. However they will not be able to benefit from the urban social security since they were not under the registration of the special system. The lack of regulation is another issue. Since there is no social insurance law in China, the local social insurance agencies are weak enforcers of power. This makes collecting payments even more difficult. Also since there is no such law, it is hard to apply penalties. From the international point of view, the states basic pension systems are mostly being legislated by state first, then organised by the Central Government. However, Chinas pension system formed gradually under the basis of summing up experiences of local reform. It is only written in the Constitution of the nationals that citizens have the right to receive substance. Other pension systems were implemented in accordance with regulations promulgated by the State Council. The Social Insurance Law, as it has already been called for many years, is still in the process of taking advice, which means that pension rights are infringed due to lack of legal protection. This further led to a large number of arrears and made mana gement of the pension system even harder, without any strong legal grounds. 3.4 Problems occurring in transaction Finally, another challenge will be the transfer between pension accounts. The disadvantage of migrant workers is that their accumulated benefits in their pension accounts from their previous employers cannot be moved. It is therefore a risk for them to give up their accumulated benefits in one work place and take another new position in a different city or province. It is difficult for the government to transfer the pension accounts from one city or province to another, especially when such workers tend to move frequently for immediate job opportunities. Therefore, the migrant workers cannot receive their pension benefits from past employment and finally lose out financially when they return to their homeland at the end. At present, in a large number of cities, pension consulting business is processed by computers. In more developed cities, pension consulting networks have been established. But as a whole, Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pension-collection policy still has a lot to improve; information system coverage is still below average. It specifically shows in the following ways. Firstly, information authorities and management systems are not adapting to the overall development trend. Also, the lack of a complete and versatile information operating system of social security results in slow delivery of information and finance data, as well as slow construction of the reconciliation system among departments. Chapter 4 Different types of pension reform and what China chose to do Since the last century, many countries worldwide started to reform their pension systems. The following graph shows that most countries made parameter adjustment without changing the basic framework of the pension system, including the change to the fee structure, revenue structure and method of management reforms. In addition, about 21% of the countries made a fundamental structural change to the national public pension system. Proportions of different types of pension reform Source: Schwarz Demirguc-Kunt (1999) Different countries chose various forms of pension reform according to their countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s basic economic and social conditions. However, to sum up, there are five main types of pension reform, which are as follows: Parametric Reform Parametric reform is the adjustment of parameters of the existing public pension system, including adjustments of payment, remuneration, and benefit eligibility. The main purpose of such a system is to reduce the public pension expenditure Privatization Reform In order to alleviate the pressure on the public pension system, in recent years a major trend has been to expand the market for private pension funds. A number of countries have taken many measures to encourage voluntary private pension systems, such as giving preferential tax policies, reducing the size of the public pension system and other steps. Notional Account Reform The state transferred the PAYGO, defined benefit public pension system to a notional accounts system. Under such a pension system, employees are just like those in a private pension system, as its contribution is credited to individual accounts, and receives interest. Workers receive a pension upon retirement, depending on the amount of money in their personal accounts. However, there is no actual accumulation of funds in the employees personal account, as the money paid by active employees is used to pay retireesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ pensions. That is, the notional accounts system benefit has a defined contribution, but its means of financing is still PAYGO; therefore it is called a Notional Defined Contribution system. From Defined Benefit to Defined Contribution Although the transformation from the current PAYGO defined benefit system to a fully funded defined contribution system is one of the main trends of reform, a small number of African and Asian countries have chosen to do it the other way round. They have changed from a fully funded defined contribution system to a PAYGO defined benefit system. This is because these countries have accumulated a fund, which is managed by the Government provident fund system. Due to a lack of regulations and governments often abuse their powers, and such pension funds not only failed to obtain a reasonable rate of return, but in some countries also suffered serious diversion and erosion. In order to limit the rights of the government, these countries decided to change the pension system to a non-funded PAYGO system. Since under such a scheme there is no accumulation of funds, therefore the Government tends to be unlikely to abuse the funds. Multi-Pillar System After 100 years of development, the pension system has shown a wide variety of forms. Different forms of pension system have their own advantages in achieving their goals, but some shortcomings are inevitable. Therefore, the World Bank has been advocating the establishment of a multi-pillar pension system, allowing complementary advantages and risk diversification. In 1994, the World Bank proposed in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Averting Old Age Crisisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ the establishment of a three-pillar pension system: (a) the first pillar is a public, PAYGO, usually defined benefit and redistributive pension system; (b) the second pillar is a private, funded, almost always defined contribution pension system; (c) the third pillar is a private, funded, voluntary, supplementary, preferably defined contribution pension system. In 2005, the World Bank extended the establishment of the three-pillar system to a five-pillar system in the report of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"21st Century Elderly Income Securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Among them, the zero pillar is to provide a minimum protection, non-contributory national pension system, the fourth pillar is the informal supporting system within the family to the elderly, or formal social welfare system. The five pillars have their own characteristics and different functions; and can be able to cope with different types of risk. Zero pillar is helping to eliminate poverty for the poor segment of society, as well as secure those groups working in informal sectors with low incomes. It is regarded as a part of the social safety net. The aim of the first pillar is to respond to a short-sighted individual risk, low-income risks, uncertainty in life expectancy and investment risks in financial markets, but it is vulnerable to demographic changes and political fluctuations. The second pillar through a mandatory savings system can prevent the short-sighted individual risk, while the privately managed pension system would avoid influence from political risks. However, the second pillar pension system is vulnerable to the impact of financial market risks, and transaction costs are relatively high. The third pillar can compensate for the rigidity in the design of the other pillars, but privatel y managed pension funds may have financial risk and agency risk. The fourth pillar has the main function of family protection, and through the social welfare system to provide medical care and housing protection to the elderly. Compared to a single pension system, the greatest strength of a multi-pillar pension system is its ability to withstand risks, which is significantly enhanced. This is because the factors affecting each pillar are not entirely relevant to each other. In many cases, the relevance is very small, even negative. For example, if the first pillar is a PAYGO, defined benefit pension system, the main factor affecting this pillar is the growth rate of wages. While the second and third pillar may be a completely accumulation based, defined contribution pension system, and the main factors influencing it will be the investment rate of return. As the correlation between the rate of wage growth and return on investment is very small, it is efficient to distribute the pension assets in these three pillars. In addition, there is also a complementary relationship among the different pillars. For example, in the individual defined contribution pension system, workers need to take an amount of savings in their personal accounts and convert it into an annuity. At this time, employees have to bear the risk of changes in interest rates, as well as the risk of death. However, defined benefit pension systems can spread the risk of death. Again, the third pillar à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" a voluntary occupational pension system is vulnerable to income fluctuations and job changing, but the first and second pillar pension system can offset these effects. Many countries adopted the multi-pillar pension system because the World Bank recommended the concept of such a model. However, the specific choice of a mix of pillars depends on the national situation, including the status of the existing pension system, reform objectives, administrative capacity, the level of development of financial markets, the level of restructuring costs and other factors. In low-income countries, the goal of a pensions system should be defined as the eradicati